Diamond, J., 1999. Artificial selection and natural selection in captiv-Great agility (e.g. Le 25 novembre 2020 Formation « Biosécurité en élevage avicole » Tout l'agenda. These effects were ascribed to reduced fear and exploration, respectively. (Gallus domesticus): The influence of the experimenter. volume 11, pages135–144(1981)Cite this article. Bignami, G. (1965). Animal Behaviour, 32, 296–298. Motor activity in the open field was higher among females than Iticiigs. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 57, 100–103. ), Adaptation of Domestic Animals. Relations entre l’activité en open-field et l’aptitude à la dominance chez le co? 2:193–201. ), In: Jensen, P. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 19, 157–168. Domestication effects on vol. (Anser indicus): Vocal cooperation between siblings? Males showed greater fear than females in the open field and higher activity levels were observed among birds tested individually rather than in groups. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Animal Behaviour, 36, 293–296. The estimation of fear in domestic quail: Correlations between various methods and measures. Saeki, Y., Inoue, Y., 1979. 48, of mother–young interactions in the survival of offspring in 1133 – 1141. domestic mammals. Social rearing reduced responsivity to the maternal alarm call in ducklings tested in an open field. CANDLAND, D. K., NAGY, Z. M., & CONKLYN, D. H. (1963). Behavioural Processes, 8, 309–325. / Livestock Production Science 93 (2005) 3–14for domestication, including traits such as diet, groups, are territorial, and form pairs with females.reproduction, social relationships and behaviour However, despite these drawbacks, the pigeon hastowards man. In L. R. Aronson, E. Tobach, D. S. Lehrman, & J. S. Rosenblatt (Eds. PANKSEPP, J., VILBERG, T., BEAN, N. J., COY, D. H., & KASTIN, A. J. Exposure to a large novel arena depressed activity more among chicks reared in small rather than large cages. Fear of a novel environment was greater among hens housed in the top rather than lower tiers of a battery system. Sci. Adrenergic and cholinergic control of open field behaviour in domestic chicks. Regular handling may specifically reduce fear of human beings, presumably through habituation, rather than depressing general fearfulness. Ircs Medical Science, 14, 844–845. In W. Sluckin (Ed. Social and environmental aspects of fear in the domestic fowl. Calif. Publ. After eight generations of selection the distribution of latencies and of measures of activity overlapped only slightly. Distress calling elicited by separation from companions and exposure to a strange pen was greater if the ambient temperature was low. Artificial selection.Anim. Behavioural Processes, 2, 163–173. Spatial memory in pigeon? General review includes discussion of chicks’ responses to novel environments. I. Effet de la sélection pour l'activité en open-field sur la croissance en poids et la conformation.Ann. 70, 99 – 114. MALCOLM, S. H., & GRAVES, H. B. Although this differ-that had not undergone artificial selection for produc- ence can be partly attributed to sampling variations,tion traits and noted that the proportion of animals it must also reflect some genetic changes. for contrasting blood corticosterone response to immobilization. Biology of Behaviour, 7, 19–24. Selection for improved growth was accompanied by increased open-field activity in chicks and enhanced exploration in adult hens. VALLORTIGARA, G. (1988). FAURE, J. M. (1977). PubMed Google Scholar. Behavioural aspects of fear. Sizeet al. The selection, management, and general behavior of pheasants bred for differences in their open-field activity are described. Vocalization in chicks and the concept of “stimulus contrast.” Animal Behaviour, 12, 64–76. Relations entre la croissance et l’activité en open-field chez la Poule. Neurobehavioral Toxicology and Teratology, 4, 323–329. Maternal vocal control of behavioral inhibition in mallard duckling? Rearing chicks with manipulable objects reduced emotionality when they were placed in an open field containing a mechanical toy. Single injections of Nlaam given either pre-or postnatally reduced open-field activity at 7 days of age but its effects on distress vocalization were time-and dose-dependent. Learn more about Institutional subscriptions. SUAREZ, S. D., & GALLUP, G. G., Jr. (1980). It was suggested that open-field activity was promoted and attenuated by cholinergic and adrenergic agonists respectively. HALE, C. (1977). In R-M Wegner (Ed. Repeated exposure gradually overcame the inhibitory effects of fear and allowed feeding to occur in a strange test environment. It was suggested that the traditional critical period for imprinting may be an artifact of laboratory methods. Slow rates (normal reconnaisance and slowed assembly calls) inhibited vocalization and induced freezing whereas faster rates (normal assembly and quickened reconnaisance calls) increased vocalizaton and approach towards the sound source. Chicks showing high open-field activity also moved sooner after exposure to startling visual or auditory stimuli and showed shorter tonic immobility fear reactions than did inactive ones. Evolution, consequences and future of plant and animal domestication. CUMMINS, R. A., BUDTZ-OLSEN, O. E., WALSH, R. N., & WORSLEY, A. Social segregation and the maintenance of Nowak, R., Porter, R.H., Levy, F., Orgeur, P., Schaal, B., 2000. The significant intra-individual correlations found between tests support their use as methods of estimating fear in quail. Gustafsson et al. The effects of age and repeated testing on open-field behavior in chickens were reported. For example, Limousine cattle show ahide from predators will have a decreased weighting greater flight distance than Jersey cattle when rearedin total fitness because humans choose the breeders in their usual environments (extensive and intensive,and provide shelter. In Assessment of the welfare of farm animals (pp. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp. GENTLE, M. J., WOOD-GUSH, D. G. M., & GORDON, J. HOFFMAN, H. S., EISERER, L. A., RATNER, A. M., & PICKERING, V. L. (1974). (1973). / Livestock Production Science 93 (2005) 3–14 5, 6 S. Mignon-Grasteau et al. The representativenessas equilibrium is expected to be reached within a of the wild reference is not as important as in breedgiven environment, highly specialised animals may comparisons, as the purpose is to quantify the rate ofhave difficulty in adapting to changes in their evolution with time. (Anas platyrhynchos). The effect of environmental change upon chicks’ proximity seeking behavior in relation to imprinting objects in unfamiliar situations may vary with the modality in which change occurs and the salience of the imprinting object. British Poultry Science, 19, 725–730. (1999) animals have adapted to their environments but mayand Spinka et al. (1985). Untersuchungen zur Laufaktivität beim Hühn. Goslings exposed to a novel test chamber in pairs alternated their distress calling. ),Experiments in Personality, Vol. Effects of lead nitrate ingestion on open-field behavior of mallard ducklings. The visual image of the companion and acoustic feedback provided by pleasure trills were the main recognition features and a dummy combining a mirror-like image with recorded pleasure trills was as effective in reducing anxiety as an actual companion. Biol. Siegel, P. B. - 51.15.52.155. The development of habituation in the domestic chick. 35:9–19. laying2001). MURPHY, L. B. Thirteen of these buffalos and llamas were domesticated later, aroundspecies come from Europe or Asia and only one from 6000 YBP. 9:241–245. (1999) compared domesticated pigs(LandraceÂGreat Yorkshire) and LandraceÂwild boar Most domesticated species are naturally socialcrossbreds. Responsiveness to the overall novelty of the test situation may have masked any potential influence of the experimenter per se. World Congress on Genetics Applied to Livestock, Montpellier,Schu¨tz, K., Forkman, B., Jensen, P., 2001. 87–88). In the case of the horse, it appears thatAmerica (the llama). It was proposed that open-field behavior represents a compromise between opposing tendencies to reinstate contact with conspecifics and to minimize detection in the face of possible predation. Archiv fur Geflügelkunde, 49, 237–246. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 96, 225–239. (Eds. Animal Behaviour, 22, 745–749. Opioid blockade reduced chicks’ capacity to inhibit each others distress vocalizations. Magee, W. T. (1965). Jpn. Différences génétiques de comportement exploratoire expérimental chez le poussin. Distress call alternation in Peking duckling? The presence of even a single companion had a “considerable reassuring effect” on chicks placed in a novel environment. 4:160–162. First in a series of publications. PubMed Google Scholar, Faure, J.M. R. Soc. (ed. (1974). (Diamond, 2002). Detailed descriptions of the open-field apparatus, selection program for differential open-field activity and some related behavioral and physiological modifications are given. (1986). Twitter calling and food pecking increased whereas shrill calling decreased as chicks became accustomed to a novel test chamber. JONES, R. B., & MERRY, B. J. BLÖSCH, vON M., & CHEN, S.-Ch. Appl. head or brain size has decreased (Gross, 1998;Together with two other QTL, they explained 80% of Diamond, 2002).variation in adult growth in males and 50% infemales. PHILLIPS, R. E., & LORENZ, J. G. (1984). Food-related twitter calls were preferred over peeps in a novel situation. Benoff, F. H., and Siegel, P. B. Res. Fearfulness and abnormalities in the chicken’s egg-shell — is there a link? (1966). Genet. Sel. Biology of Behaviour, 2, 193–201. Methylmercury: Second generation reproductive and behavioral effects on mallard ducks. A study of the behavioural expression of fear and exploration in two stocks of domestic fowl. Good agreement was found between measures of activity obtained via automatic recording or direct observation. In Belyaev’s tame foxes, baseline and also if they had experienced predation beforeserum cortisol level was much lower than in wild (death rate 9% and 17% in wild and farmed,foxes (36 vs. 160 nmol lÀ1), and the stress-induced respectively). Activity and vocalization were increased in chicks of the inactive line but reduced in those of the active line with repeated exposure to the open field. Behaviour of rabbits and rodents. (1983). Domestication and adaptation. domestication as bthe process by which captive0301-6226/$ - see front matter D 2004 Published by Elsevier B.V.doi:10.1016/j.livprodsci.2004.11.001. The open-field responses of chicks of flighty and docile lines were unaffected by either the visual presence or absence of the experimenter during testing, variations in his orientation or by different durations of handling immediately prior to testing. Chicks carrying the “naked neck”? (Gallus gallus): Antipredatory responses, social reinstatement motivation, and gender effects. MURPHY, L. B., & WOOD-GUSH, D. G. M. (1978). BROWN, C. P., & KIELY, P. C. (1974). 96–105). (Ed. PubMed Development of distress vocalization during withdrawal of an imprinting stimulus. Open-field behaviour of male and female domestic chicks as a function of housing conditions, test situations and novelty. However, in breeds do not allow identification of genes that werethis case, animals were artificially selected for fixed at the beginning of the domestication process.tameness, which probably increased the rate of This is probably the reason why QTL detected in theevolution of these traits in the population. Selection of domestic chicks showing high or low locomotor activity in an open field was rapid. Inst. JONES, R. B. Interviews. MILLER, D. B. (Gallus domesticus). Genet. largely explained by a limited number of QTLs. Learn. Ircs Medical Science, 12, 482–483. (1979). (1983). 9:247–250. 15,000 domesticated vs. ostrich and salmon, Jensen, 2002a).25,000 wild). FUJITA, O., & HARA, M. (1971). 3:255–261. Topography of locomotor behaviour in the chick. TOLMAN, C. W., & WELLMAN, A. W. (1968). (1978). Ethology (in press). for domestication, including traits such as diet, reproduction, social relationships and behaviour towards man. Lond. (1960). Google Scholar. 1a and b), sheep and goats apparently Very few species have been domesticated. The to fulfil specific product needs, such as fur (e.g., foxdomesticated population of the latter is even less than and mink) and alternative sources of meat (e.g.,the wild population (i.e. 23 – 30. Behavioural Processes, 5, 173–183. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 86, 563–568. In contrast, the numbers years, a period of domestication has occurred in orderof domesticated silver fox and Bison are low. 5:29–35. A behavioural strategies: a comparison of red junglefowl (Gallus resource allocation model describing consequences of arti- gallus) and two domesticated breeds of poultry. 73, 2249 – 2253. Response o? The behaviour of chicks which do not eat the mealworm. CABI Publishing, Wall- Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp. (Ed. Zonotrichia leucophrys. ably still occurring and populations of domestic animals are still evolving. (1986). The assessment of fear in the domestic fowl. (2000) observedand Ihobe, 1985). Sex differences in open-field behaviour of chicks. Fear and social motivation as factors in open-field behaviour of the domestic chick: A theoretical consideration. (1987). (1996) showed that a higher proportion ofto a strong interaction between genotype and environ- Romanov ewes licked their lambs (96%) comparedment, as the young salmon’s behaviour varies with to Lacaune ewes (75%), and that they reaction waslocation (Yamamoto and Reinhardt, 2003). Faure, J. M. (1977a). Drug-motivated behavior: The effect of morning glory seeds on motor activity of chicks. Responses of male and female domestic chicks to a startling stimulus and the effects of a tranquillizer. The Psychological Record, 27, 611–618. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 13, 283–294. Animal Behaviour, 33, 839–848. Rev. Pretest exposure to frightening stimuli generally reduced peeping (distress calling) but it was unaffected by tranquilizer ingestion or by experimenter proximity. / Livestock Production Science 93 (2005) 3–14 genetic analyses by the reciprocal crossing with White Leg- Spinka, M., Illmann, G., de Jonge, F., Andersson, M., Schuurman, horns. Effects of early rearing conditions and age upon open-field behavior in chicks. Chicks placed in a novel environment pecked more at food objects in the presence of familiar patterns. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 31, 701–710. FREDERICK, R. B. 4, 900 – 910.Acknowledgments Clutton-Brock, J., 1992. Avian Open-Field Research and Related Effects of Environmental Novelty: An Annotated Bibliography, 1960–1988. Behaviours traits didoften difficult to find. Falconer, D. S. (1960).Introduction to Quantitative Genetics, Longmans, London. An ethological analysis of open-field behaviour in chickens. Article Argued against an interpretation of the effects of testosterone on open-field vocalization based on arousal. Faculté des Sciences de Toulouse. Peeping in chicks as a function of environmental change. Unfamiliarity with either static or moving features of the test environment elicited responses which interfered with imprinting. SUAREZ, S. D., & GALLUP, G. G., Jr. (1981). Irc? Psychol.Kawahara, T., Mita, A., Saito, M., Sugimoto, N., 1974. An experimental study of conflict and fear: An analysis of behaviour of young chicks towards a mealworm. Estimation of fear in two lines of the domestic chick: Correlations between various methods. 1 – 14. Moreover, it has been possible to Domestication is an evolutive process duringselect Japanese quail on social reinstatement behav- which many behaviour traits have changed from theiour (Mills and Faure, 1991). Animal Behaviour, 9, 197–204. The presence of an odorant with which they had been reared reduced chicks’ fear of an open field. JONES, R, B., & GENTLE, M. J. Heritably of the peep vocalization in White Leghorn-type chicks. References used for the figure: Anonymous, 1997; Avignon, 1981; Balon,1995; Belshaw, 1985; Brant, 1998; Bruford et al., 2003; Diamond, 1999; Giuffra et al., 2000; Guy and Buckland, 2002; Hale et al., 1969; Hall,2002; Jensen, 2002a,b; Keeling, 2002; Leclercq, 1990; MacDonnell, 2002; MacHugh et al., 1997; Mills et al., 1997; Morton, 2002; Price, 2002;Rutter, 2002; Vandeputte and Prunet, 2002; Wood-Gush, 1958; Zeder and Hesse, 2000; Zeuner, 1963. Eine Untersuchingzurgenetischen Veranlagung der Laufaktivitat von Wachteln. SALEH, K., & BESSEI, W. (1981). Genetic influence on tonic immobility in chickens.Anim. Feeding behaviour of domestic chicks in the presence of their own mirror image. 125–163). 52:1269–1277. 1b). Z. Tierpsychol. Ethol. 5:417–418. Pronounced immobility, presumably induced by fear of the novel test environment, interfered with the approach/avoidance tendencies of 12-week-old pheasants. BESSEI, W. (1982). DNA markersselection for such traits before it can be implemented reveal the complexity of livestock domestication. Cholinergic involvement in inhibitory behavior of the young domestic chick. In La caille domestiques, le gabier à plumes (pp. Influence d’une sélection sur le comportement sur la reponse a l’infection coccidienne chez la poule. Xth World's Poult. British Poultry Science, 28, 319–326. (1980). Revue du Comportement Animal, 7, 3–12. Gallus domesticus. The difference would probably turn results in interference with social relationships ashave been greater if domesticated pigs had been humans control both reproduction and production.compared to pure wild boars. Reinhardt, U.G., 2001. (1984). Selection for differential open-field activity over 8 generations resulted in line symmetry, relatively high heritability, and an absence of heterotic effects. Ithave been selected for increased aggressivity, e.g. Chicks in a novel environment: Effects of conspecific calls. J. Ethol. VALLORTIGARA, G., & ZANFORLIN, M. (1986). As a consequence ofyoung, and it is possibly poorer in domesticated these investments in specific production traits and dueanimals, although there are few comparisons of wild to the limitation of total resources, domesticatedand domesticated animals. Differencesdifferent experiments in quails, chickens and turkeys observed between wild and domesticated animals areby the use of behavioural criteria (duration of tonic consistent with this hypothesis. Strain differences in tonic immobility: Evidence for an emotionality component.J. Moreover, males live in family breeds (Beaumont et al., 2002). Testosterone, early experience and behavioral arousal in a novel environment. Aquat. A history of the domestic chicken from modern laying strain. Revue de Comportement Animal, 8, 95–102. Die Beeinflussung der Stimmungsübertragung bei Hühnerküken durch neurotrope Substanzen. 16–19. Amsterdam: Elsevier. S. Mignon-Grasteau et al. Relations entre la croissance et l'activité en open-field chez la poule. Responsiveness of chicks placed in an open field and exposed to a loud bell increased then declined to plateau above the initial level with increasing age. In: Fries, R., Ruvinsky, A. There is huge variability in unclear (Lenstra and Bradley, 1999). 1, Psychogenetics and Psychopharmacology, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, pp. Sel. DeFries, J. C., Gervais, M. C., and Thomas, E. A. : +33 2 47 42 76 91; fax: +33 2 47 4277 78. A selection program for open-field activity in 2-day-old chicks was performed over eight generations. Rep.-Natl. FAURE, J. M., JONES, R. B., & BESSEI, W. (1983). The results were discussed in terms of attentional mechanisms. Fish. Price, E.O., King, J.A., 1968. Cyprinus carpio: from Roman gourmets to the swimming flowers. Relations entre la croissance et l'activité en open-field chez la poule. 1076 – 1086. First of a series of publications. In: Garner, J.P., d’e´levage: introduction. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 14, 63–74. Breed. JONES, R. B. The practical problems of recognizing and measuring fear and exploration behaviour in the domestic fowl. Fish. ), The Behaviour of Domestic Animals. This effect was absent when chicks were reared in groups of 10. KTBL-Schr. Comptes rendus de l’Academie bulgare des Sciences, 40, 119–122. Physiol. lDependences between the chickens’ behaviour and the amount of serotonin in their blood. The rationale and methodology of open-field testing and the functional significance of behavior patterns observed in a novel environment are described and discussed. In C. R. XV. Results brought by molecular genetics (Schu¨tz et al., 2002; Kerje et al., 2003). ANDREW, R. J. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp. Local cues exerted more control than global ones but the pigeons acquired and remembered information about both types of spatial cue in an open-field analogue of the radial-arm maze. HOGAN, J. 2, pp. (Eds. Pre-hatch administration of Nembutal, a Cns depressant, increased activity in an activity wheel and an open field and enhanced ducklings’ approach towards the experimenter. Ease of capture by human beings of Japanese quai? (Cot.cot.jap). Environmental novelty elicited responses which were incompatible with filial behavior. 55 (Suppl. (1983). HEINZ, G. H. (1979). Breeding success of wild and hand- Sci. Pheasants from a line selected for high open-field activity were heavier at 7 weeks than those from the corresponding inactive line but birds from both lines flew similar distances in response to disturbance at 17 weeks of age. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, July 28, 1887, Image 2, brought to you by Library of Congress, Washington, DC, and the National Digital Newspaper Program. White LeghornÂRed Jungle Fowl experiment have not been found in crosses between domestic lines3.3. Includes some discussion of open-field behavior in chicks. 423 – 433.Selzer, D., Jauker, F., Hoy, S., 2000. The genetics of learning ability in rats.Univ. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, pp. FAURE, J. M. (1981). Biology of Behaviour, 7, 17–25. Animal Behaviour, 21, 116–123. Appl. Reply to Dr. Andrew and Dr. Archer. Activity, comfort and maintenance behaviors were all reduced by exposure to the open field. 380 – 385.bAgri Bien-Etre AnimalQ of the INRA. Effet de l’habituation sur le comportement en open-field du jeune poussi? 15, 365 – 371. Guns, Germs and Steel: the Fate of Human Societies. Ele´ments de ge´ne´tique quantitative. (Gallus gallus domesticus). Development of fear in chicks of two closely related genetic lines. Apparent absence of sex differences in the behaviour of Japanese quail chicks in four behavioural tests. Anim. Proc. Flammarion, Paris.Balon, E.K., 1995. Norton W.W., New York.Avignon, M.F., 1981. The main birdindicators of successful domestication such as spread species were domesticated after mammals, domesti-area and size of the domesticated population and cation of chickens and geese being between 5500 andextent of the control of humans on production or 3000 YBP (Wood-Gush, 1958; Leclercq, 1990) whilereproduction. Kovach, J. D. (1978). In: Sauveur, B., de Carville, H. Bailliere, Tindall and Cassell, London, pp. A critical review of fear, exploration, and their assessment. Emotionality in the open field increased from hatch to 10–15 days of age and then stabilized. In contrast, some breeds wild types to the existing domesticated populations. The open field as a stressor: Fear in domestic chicks. Part of Springer Nature. (1977). Horses, donkeys, waterbeen domesticated (Diamond, 1999). GREEN, P. C., & MEEKER, R. (1972). Comparisons of wild and domestic stocksto different extents and in various directions, theresource allocation theory could be helpful to predict The most commonly used method to study howthe changes resulting from domestication. ARCHER, J. Hormones and Behavior, 8, 123–127. Zoot., pp. Testosterone promoted short calls in both sexes early in the test and then reduced the numbers of peeps given by males during established calling. Resistance to Eimeria tenella was lower among chicks selected for high rather than low open-field activity. Estimating response to selection.J. and Inoue (1979) showed that White Leghorn and Red Jungle fowl hens laid their first egg at 159 d Differences observed between wild and domesti- and 298 d, respectively. How do fearful birds respond? SHABALINA, A. T., & MALINOVA, K. I. Breed comparisons in ruminants have shown a shorter latency to feeding after introduction ofthat flight distance from humans is much greater in chemical alarm signals (Yamamoto and Reinhardt,Romanov sheep used in extensive rearing with little 2003). Reviews the development of fear and responsiveness to novelty. When barriers were placed between animals that live in large, highly organised groupspatches where food was offered, both types of animals with a stable social hierarchy. Social rank and priority of access to resources in domestic fowl. Animal Behaviour, 23, 169–178. Some effects of early social stimulation on the emotional reactivity of ducklings. Poult. Gallus chicks to the static environment. (1977). Behavioral Biology, 8, 93–108. 32, chus masou. salmon invading a native population. Domestic Animals Behaviour: Causes and Sci. (1975). Siegel, P. B. Effects of testosterone on immobility responses in the young male chick. 56, 15 – 33. ARCHER, J. ), Development and evolution of behavior (pp. (1985). The open-field test as a rapid and sensitive behavioural measure in White Peking duckling? Lush, J. L. (1949).Animal Breeding Plans, 3rd ed., Iowa State College Press, Ames. After 18 that wild steelhead trout were less susceptible togenerations of selection, foxes had reduced cortisol predation than farmed trout if they were naRve (deathlevels and reduced fear when exposed to humans rates 12% and 23% in wild and farmed, respectively),(Harri et al., 2003). A QTL study of cattle poisons: domestication, re´sistance au stress et adaptation aux behavioral traits in embryo transfer families. When possible, studying a cross fearful animals (Diamond, 1999). INRA Prod. BOYER, J. P., MELIN, J. M., & FERRE, R. (1970). The presence of social companions reduced fear and increased pecking among chicks placed in an unfamiliar environment. Belyaev (1979) kept silver foxes in Similarly, Schmutz et al. Ethology 107, ficial selection under metabolic stress. Proceedings of the 30th International Congress of the ISAE, Guelph, (CAN), 1996/08/ Grignard, L., 2001. Repeated open-field testing of male and female chicks of each of 3 lines was accompanied by increased ambulation, vocalization, preening and pecking. Animal Behaviour, 26, 422–431. Behavioural Processes, 8, 243–253.
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