Contemporary accounts of the pandemic are varied and often imprecise. [127] In the Strasbourg massacre of February 1349, about 2,000 Jews were murdered. Symptoms are high fevers and purple skin patches (purpura due to disseminated intravascular coagulation). Les propriétaires du navire, discrètement prévenus par le capitaine, font jouer leurs relations pour éviter une quarantaine [32][c] In 1908, Gasquet claimed that use of the name atra mors for the 14th-century epidemic first appeared in a 1631 book on Danish history by J. I. Pontanus: "Commonly and from its effects, they called it the black death" (Vulgo & ab effectu atram mortem vocitabant). [110], Detailed study of the mortality data available points to two conspicuous features in relation to the mortality caused by the Black Death: namely the extreme level of mortality caused by the Black Death, and the remarkable similarity or consistency of the level of mortality, from Spain in southern Europe to England in north-western Europe. La mortalité dans la ville commence à baisser en décembre avec seulement un ou deux morts par jour. [41][42] This is known as the First plague pandemic. [99] Plague remained a major event in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century. Les médecins n'y prennent pas garde. The Black Death most likely originated in Central Asia or East Asia,[11][12][13][14][15] from where it travelled along the Silk Road, reaching Crimea by 1347. And none could be found to bury the dead for money or friendship. 20 juin, 1720, rue Belle-Table, quartier misérable de Marseille, Marie Dunplan, une lavandière de 58 ans meurt après quelques jours d'agonie. [118] In Cairo, with a population numbering as many as 600,000, and possibly the largest city west of China, between one third and 40% of the inhabitants died inside of eight months.[99]. [71], Nestorian graves dating to 1338–1339 near Issyk-Kul in Kyrgyzstan have inscriptions referring to plague, which has led some historians and epidemiologists to think they mark the outbreak of the epidemic. [116] By the 1380s in Europe, it predominantly affected children. [106], There are no exact figures for the death toll; the rate varied widely by locality. This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading-edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus Yersinia pestis. The only medical detail that is questionable in Boccaccio's description is that the gavocciolo was an "infallible token of approaching death", as, if the bubo discharges, recovery is possible. Page indépendante sans but lucratif administrée par Philippe Poisson et Camille Lazare, membres de l'association Criminocorpus. Left untreated, of those that contract the bubonic plague, 80 percent die within eight days.[102]. [40], Archaeologist Barney Sloane has argued that there is insufficient evidence of the extinction of numerous rats in the archaeological record of the medieval waterfront in London and that the disease spread too quickly to support the thesis that Y. pestis was spread from fleas on rats; he argues that transmission must have been person to person. Conseiller du roi et éminent personnage du royaume, il se signale par son dévouement exceptionnel. Others favor an origin in China. Renewed religious fervour and fanaticism bloomed in the wake of the Black Death. [109] Before 1350, there were about 170,000 settlements in Germany, and this was reduced by nearly 40,000 by 1450. Others adopted preventive measures and treatments for plague used by Europeans. [32] Half of Paris' population of 100,000 people died. [37][38] This Y. pestis may have been different to more modern types, with bubonic plague transmissible by fleas first known from Bronze Age remains near Samara.[39]. The generally assumed population of Europe at the time is about 80 million, implying that around 50 million people died in the Black Death. The bubonic plague mechanism was also dependent on two populations of rodents: one resistant to the disease, which act as hosts, keeping the disease endemic, and a second that lack resistance. [141]) The second pandemic was particularly widespread in the following years: 1360–63; 1374; 1400; 1438–39; 1456–57; 1464–66; 1481–85; 1500–03; 1518–31; 1544–48; 1563–66; 1573–88; 1596–99; 1602–11; 1623–40; 1644–54; and 1664–67. Après cet épisode dramatique, on n'entendra plus jamais reparler de la peste en Europe... mais les sociétés vont découvrir que l'on n'est jamais à l'abri d'une épidémie…. ", "The Black Death: The Greatest Catastrophe Ever", "Bubonic plague was a serial visitor in European Middle Ages", "The Biological Standard of Living in Europe during the Last Two Millennia", "An Economic History of the World since 1400", "Q&A with John Kelly on The Great Mortality on National Review Online", The End of Europe's Middle Ages: The Black Death, http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/black_impact_01.shtml, "The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Black Death)", Infectious Diseases: Plague Through History, Drug-resistant plague a 'major threat', say scientists, "Madagascar Wrestles With Worst Outbreak of Plague in Half a Century", "The Stone Age Plague and Its Persistence in Eurasia", "History of biological warfare and bioterrorism", "A draft genome of Yersinia pestis from victims of the Black Death", "Epidemiology of the Black Death and Successive Waves of Plague", "Human ectoparasites and the spread of plague in Europe during the Second Pandemic", "Detection and characterisation of Black Death burials by multi-proxy geophysical methods", "Taking "Pandemic" Seriously: Making the Black Death Global", "Putting Africa on the Black Death map: Narratives from genetics and history", "Distinct Clones of Yersinia pestis Caused the Black Death", "Yersinia pestis genome sequencing identifies patterns of global phylogenetic diversity", "Before and After the Black Death: Money, Prices, and Wages in Fourteenth-Century England", "Emergence and Spread of Basal Lineages of Yersinia pestis during the Neolithic Decline", "Early Divergent Strains of Yersinia pestis in Eurasia 5,000 Years Ago", "Dangers of Noncritical Use of Historical Plague Data", "Dynamics of the plague–wildlife–human system in Central Asia are controlled by two epidemiological thresholds", "Climate-driven introduction of the Black Death and successive plague reintroductions into Europe", "Targeted enrichment of ancient pathogens yielding the pPCP1 plasmid of Yersinia pestis from victims of the Black Death", "Analysis of 3800-year-old Yersinia pestis genomes suggests Bronze Age origin for bubonic plague", "Phylogeography of the second plague pandemic revealed through analysis of historical Yersinia pestis genomes", "Yersinia pestis and the Plague of Justinian 541–543 AD: a genomic analysis", "Medieval and Modern Bubonic Plague: some clinical continuities", "Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa", Persecution of Jews during the Black Death, Cronaca fiorentina di Marchionne di Coppo Stefani, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Death&oldid=986340729, Articles containing Icelandic-language text, Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text, Articles with unsourced statements from January 2020, Articles with unsourced statements from October 2020, Articles with unsourced statements from April 2020, Articles with incomplete citations from April 2020, Articles lacking reliable references from April 2020, Articles with unsourced statements from March 2020, Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, A more legible copy of the poem appears in: Emile Littré (1841), This page was last edited on 31 October 2020, at 07:10. Pierre-Esprit Radisson, né à Paris où à Avignon vers 1636 et mort à Londres en 1710, explorateur et commerçant de fourrures français en Nouvelle-France. Plus tard, il refusera le titre de pair de France, préférant terminer sa vie comme évêque de Marseille. (7). Plague did not appear in Douai in Flanders until the turn of the 15th century, and the impact was less severe on the populations of Hainaut, Finland, northern Germany, and areas of Poland. Les médecins du port prennent l'affaire avec détachement et décident une quarantaine «douce» : les marins sont Norwegian historian Ole Benedictow suggests: While contemporary accounts report mass burial pits being created in response to the large number of dead, recent scientific investigations of a burial pit in Central London found well-preserved individuals to be buried in isolated, evenly spaced graves, suggesting at least some pre-planning and Christian burials at this time. [116], The most widely accepted estimate for the Middle East, including Iraq, Iran, and Syria, during this time, is for a death toll of about a third of the population. Because 14th-century healers and governments were at a loss to explain or stop the disease, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes, and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for outbreaks. [22] Many believed the epidemic was a punishment by God for their sins, and could be relieved by winning God's forgiveness. Most work has been done on the spread of the disease in England, and even estimates of overall population at the start vary by over 100% as no census was undertaken in England between the time of publication of the Domesday Book of 1086 and the poll tax of the year 1377. milliers de personnes. Italian chronicler Agnolo di Tura recorded his experience from Siena, where plague arrived in May 1348: Father abandoned child, wife husband, one brother another; for this illness seemed to strike through the breath and sight. [98] By late summer 1348 it reached Cairo, capital of the Mamluk Sultanate, cultural centre of the Islamic world, and the largest city in the Mediterranean Basin; the Bahriyya child sultan an-Nasir Hasan fled and more than a third of the 600,000 residents died. [76][77][78] Ole Benedictow suggests that, since the first clear reports of the Black Death come from Kaffa, the Black Death most likely originated in the nearby plague focus on the northwestern shore of the Caspian Sea.[79]. [82][83] As the disease took hold, Genoese traders fled across the Black Sea to Constantinople, where the disease first arrived in Europe in summer 1347. par-dessus le mur à des lavandières... Pour être informé des derniers articles, inscrivez vous : Portrait du jour : Hélène Legrais, l'auteure de "Nous étions trois", "L'Appartement du dessous" de Florence Herrlemann. [97], According to historian Geoffrey Parker, "France alone lost almost a million people to the plague in the epidemic of 1628–31. This may have led to the Little Ice Age.[123]. En effet, sa cargaison composée de soies fines et de balles de coton a été contaminée par le bacille de Yersin, responsable de la peste… [48][49] The mechanism by which Y. pestis is usually transmitted was established in 1898 by Paul-Louis Simond and was found to involve the bites of fleas whose midguts had become obstructed by replicating Y. pestis several days after feeding on an infected host. [25][29] The phrase mors nigra, 'black death', was used in 1350 by Simon de Covino (or Couvin), a Belgian astronomer, in his poem "On the Judgement of the Sun at a Feast of Saturn" (De judicio Solis in convivio Saturni), which attributes the plague to an astrological conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn. [115], The physician to the Avignon Papacy, Raimundo Chalmel de Vinario (Latin: Magister Raimundus, lit. Freckle-like spots and rashes,[105] which could have been caused by flea-bites, were identified as another potential sign of plague. Le 25 mai 1720, le Grand-Saint-Antoine accoste à Marseille avec un passager clandestin venu de Syrie, le bacille [109] Monks, nuns, and priests were especially hard-hit since they cared for victims of the Black Death. Lepers, and others with skin diseases such as acne or psoriasis, were killed throughout Europe. [98][101] During 1348, records show the city of Mosul suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease. Members of a household brought their dead to a ditch as best they could, without priest, without divine offices ... great pits were dug and piled deep with the multitude of dead. À bord, une dizaine de personnes ont déjà succombé. The outbreaks have been shown to occur roughly 15 years after a warmer and wetter period in areas where plague is endemic in other species, such as. [151] Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 resulted in well over 1,000 deaths, chiefly in Sydney. [99] The Nile was choked with corpses despite Cairo having a medieval hospital, the late 13th century bimaristan of the Qalawun complex. [32], The first North American plague epidemic was the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904, followed by another outbreak in 1907–1908. Chef de l'escadron des galères, Monsieur de Langeron est nommé commandant de la ville et, avec 6 compagnies de soldats, fait rapidement fermer les lieux de rassemblement (églises, tripots....) et arrêter les pilleurs. [36] Research in 2018 found evidence of Yersinia pestis in an ancient Swedish tomb, which may have been associated with the "Neolithic decline" around 3000 BCE, in which European populations fell significantly. pestis. [59] Estimates of plague victims are usually extrapolated from figures for the clergy. It was introduced into Norway in 1349 when a ship landed at Askøy, then spread to Bjørgvin (modern Bergen) and Iceland. Le 29 septembre 1721, après 40 jours sans nouvelle victime, la population rend grâce à Dieu pour l'avoir enfin délivrée du fléau. The data is sufficiently widespread and numerous to make it likely that the Black Death swept away around 60% of Europe's population. [65], Although academic debate continues, no single alternative solution has achieved widespread acceptance. (5). [152], Yersinia pestis is also responsible for an epidemic that began in southern China in 1865, eventually spreading to India. Between 1701 and 1750, thirty-seven larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in Constantinople, and an additional thirty-one between 1751 and 1800. Plague, the disease, was caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. It is feared that the plague bacterium could develop drug resistance and again become a major health threat. It is recognised that an epidemiological account of plague is as important as an identification of symptoms, but researchers are hampered by the lack of reliable statistics from this period. ont traîné avec eux. [98] That year, in the territory of modern Lebanon, Syria, Israel, and Palestine, the cities of Ashkelon, Acre, Jerusalem, Sidon, and Homs were all infected. The most authoritative contemporary account is found in a report from the medical faculty in Paris to Philip VI of France. Lui-même est atteint par la peste mais il en réchappe par miracle, alors que les chances de survie ne dépassaient pas 1 pour mille. The second model claims to better fit the trends of death toll because the rat-flea-human hypothesis would have produced a delayed but very high spike in deaths, which contradict historical death data. [19] There were further outbreaks throughout the Late Middle Ages, and with other contributing factors[b] it took until 1500 for the European population to regain the levels of 1300. [45][i] Florence's tax records suggest that 80% of the city's population died within four months in 1348. [126], There were many attacks against Jewish communities. [146] Plague was present in at least one location in the Islamic world virtually every year between 1500 and 1850. [120] On the other hand, in the quarter century after the Black Death in England, it is clear many labourers, artisans, and craftsmen, those living from money-wages alone, did suffer a reduction in real incomes owing to rampant inflation. In the words of one researcher: "Finally, plague is plague. [44] The pandemic spread westwards from Alexandria along the African coast, while in April 1348 Tunis was infected by ship from Sicily. [128] During this period many Jews relocated to Poland, where they received a warm welcome from King Casimir the Great. brutale qui empêcherait le débarquement de la cargaison. [44] Some Muslim doctors cautioned against trying to prevent or treat a disease sent by God. Formal meetings of elected representatives were suspended during the height of the epidemic due to the chaotic conditions in the city, but a small group of officials was appointed to conduct the affairs of the city, which ensured continuity of government. [53], Since this time, further genomic papers have further confirmed the phylogenetic placement of the Y. pestis strain responsible for the Black Death as both the ancestor[54] of later plague epidemics including the third plague pandemic and as the descendant[55] of the strain responsible for the Plague of Justinian. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFHorrox1994 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFBosSchuenemannGoldingBurbano (. [98], Mecca became infected in 1348 by pilgrims performing the Hajj. [89][90], According to some epidemiologists, periods of unfavourable weather decimated plague-infected rodent populations and forced their fleas onto alternative hosts,[91] inducing plague outbreaks which often peaked in the hot summers of the Mediterranean,[92] as well as during the cool autumn months of the southern Baltic states. alors pas qu'elle causait sa perte, et qu'elle allait ainsi se délester de près de 50 000 de ses habitants. Cependant, il y a des reprises et des peurs. La peste sévit dans la ville jusqu'à la fin octobre 1720 et fait environ 40 000 victimes marseillaises, soit près d'un tiers de la population. [8] In 2011, these results were further confirmed with genetic evidence derived from Black Death victims in the East Smithfield burial site in England. Ce tragique et apocalyptique épisode de notre [111][h] In 1348, the disease spread so rapidly that before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins, about a third of the European population had already perished. Cet échevin offre la liberté à des galériens en échange de leur assistance. [21], The phrase 'black death' – describing Death as black – is very old. Mathematical modelling is used to match the spreading patterns and the means of transmission. [57] Currently, while osteoarcheologists have conclusively verified the presence of Y. pestis bacteria in burial sites across northern Europe through examination of bones and dental pulp, no other epidemic pathogen has been discovered to bolster the alternative explanations. "[143] In the first half of the 17th century, a plague claimed some 1.7 million victims in Italy. [21][22][23] Subsequent to the pandemic "the furste moreyn" (first murrain) or "first pestilence" was applied, to distinguish the mid-14th century phenomenon from other infectious diseases and epidemics of plague. The disease struck various regions in the Middle East and North Africa during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures. [107] It killed some 75 to 200 million people in Eurasia. Les Grandes Epidémies: La peste de 1720. Lodewijk Heyligen, whose master the Cardinal Colonna died of plague in 1348, noted a distinct form of the disease, pneumonic plague, that infected the lungs and led to respiratory problems. [156] A further outbreak in Madagascar was reported in November 2014. Cette étude menée tambour battant par d'éminents historiens spécialisés dans l'histoire Carrière , Marcel Courdurié , Ferréol Rebuffat. Comment feraient-ils le rapprochement avec la Peste noire des temps médiévaux ? [88] Finally, it spread to northwestern Russia in 1351. [10] The plague created religious, social, and economic upheavals, with profound effects on the course of European history. The survivors of the pandemic found not only that the prices of food were lower but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives, and this probably destabilised feudalism. It blamed the heavens, in the form of a conjunction of three planets in 1345 that caused a "great pestilence in the air" (miasma theory). The Black Death resulted in the deaths of up to 75–200 million[1][2][3][4][5][6] people in Eurasia and North Africa,[7] peaking in Europe from 1347 to 1351. The Black Death was the beginning of the second plague pandemic. [86], From Italy, the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking France, Spain (which was hit due to the heat – the epidemic raged in the early weeks of July),[87] Portugal and England by June 1348, then spread east and north through Germany, Scotland and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350. [21], "Black death" was not used to describe the plague pandemic in English until the 1750s; the term is first attested in 1755, where it translated Danish: den sorte død, lit. In Mediterranean Europe, areas such as Italy, the south of France and Spain, where plague ran for about four years consecutively, it was probably closer to 75–80% of the population. It suggested an alternative model in which "the disease was spread from human fleas and body lice to other people". Plague was somewhat more uncommon in parts of Europe with less developed trade with their neighbours, including the majority of the Basque Country, isolated parts of Belgium and the Netherlands, and isolated Alpine villages throughout the continent. [84] The first outbreak in Constantinople lasted a year, but the disease recurred ten times before 1400. And so they died. [18] In total, the plague may have reduced the world population from an estimated 475 million to 350–375 million in the 14th century. de la peste. 'Great Death'. Ainsi apprend-on que toutes les couches sociales, sans distinction aucune, ont été touchées, ou encore que la maladie n'a The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy. [43], Muslim religious scholars taught that the pandemic was a “martyrdom and mercy” from God, assuring the believer's place in paradise. To answer the increased need for labour, workers travelled in search of the most favourable position economically. The disease repeatedly wiped out the rodent carriers, so that the fleas died out until a new outbreak from Central Asia repeated the process. C'est ainsi que Marseille connaît une rechute en août 1722, mais qui ne fait cette fois que 260 morts. A son bord, des hommes, du textile et... la peste. The seventh year after it began, it came to England and first began in the towns and ports joining on the seacoasts, in Dorsetshire, where, as in other counties, it made the country quite void of inhabitants so that there were almost none left alive. Document septembre As the disease progresses, sputum becomes free-flowing and bright red. histoire fut tellement incroyable dans ses différents degrés d'horreur, que l'on a l'impression, avec Marseille ville morte, d'être plongé dans une fiction digne des plus grands scénarios de This was followed by acute fever and vomiting of blood. [46][47], Y. pestis was discovered by Alexandre Yersin, a pupil of Louis Pasteur, during an epidemic of bubonic plague in Hong Kong in 1894; Yersin also proved this bacillus was present in rodents and suggested the rat was the main vehicle of transmission. [84] The epidemic there killed the 13-year-old son of the Byzantine emperor, John VI Kantakouzenos, who wrote a description of the disease modelled on Thucydides's account of the 5th century BCE Plague of Athens, but noting the spread of the Black Death by ship between maritime cities. There is a fair amount of geographic variation. Destiné à publier principalement les portraits du jour des écrivains, historiens, artistes, etc - [129], One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation in Florence caused by the Black Death, which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th-century Italy and led to the Renaissance. [66] Boccaccio's description: In men and women alike it first betrayed itself by the emergence of certain tumours in the groin or armpits, some of which grew as large as a common apple, others as an egg ... From the two said parts of the body this deadly gavocciolo soon began to propagate and spread itself in all directions indifferently; after which the form of the malady began to change, black spots or livid making their appearance in many cases on the arm or the thigh or elsewhere, now few and large, now minute and numerous. In 1348–1349, the disease reached Antioch. These Muslim doctors also depended on the writings of the ancient Greeks. During a protracted siege of the city, in 1345–1346 the Mongol Golden Horde army of Jani Beg, whose mainly Tatar troops were suffering from the disease, catapulted infected corpses over the city walls of Kaffa to infect the inhabitants,[81] though it is more likely that infected rats travelled across the siege lines to spread the epidemic to the inhabitants. Despite a significant number of deaths among members of the ruling classes, the government of Florence continued to function during this period. [21][24] This expression as a proper name for the pandemic had been popularised by Swedish and Danish chroniclers in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and in the 16th and 17th centuries was the transferred to other languages as a calque: Icelandic: svarti dauði, German: der schwarze Tod, and French: la mort noire. [32] Many scholars arguing for Y. pestis as the major agent of the pandemic suggest that its extent and symptoms can be explained by a combination of bubonic plague with other diseases, including typhus, smallpox and respiratory infections. In Italy, the population of Florence was reduced from 110,000 to 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 down to 50,000 in 1351. Les institutions française: Le Conseil d’État, (4). On mure les maisons des victimes. [150], The third plague pandemic (1855–1859) started in China in the mid-19th century, spreading to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone. [93][e] Among many other culprits of plague contagiousness, malnutrition, even if distantly, also contributed to such an immense loss in European population, since it weakened immune systems.[96]. "[52], Later in 2011, Bos et al. Towards the end of January, one of the galleys expelled from Italy arrived in Marseilles. Puis, lentement d'abord et ensuite avec une rapidité chaque jour accrue, la peste recule. By autumn 1347, plague had reached Alexandria in Egypt, transmitted by sea from Constantinople; according to a contemporary witness, from a single merchant ship carrying slaves. Epouses ou compagnes des Présidents de la République. In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as 50% of the population to die. [56], DNA taken from 25 skeletons from 14th century London have shown plague is a strain of Y. pestis almost identical to that which hit Madagascar in 2013.[57][58]. Pneumonic plague has a mortality rate of 90 to 95 percent. [28][25][21] The 12th–13th century French physician Gilles de Corbeil had already used atra mors to refer to a "pestilential fever" (febris pestilentialis) in his work On the Signs and Symptoms of Diseases (De signis et symptomatibus aegritudium). Culture et justice rassemble des informations relatives à l’actualité culturelle sur les questions de justice. [27][25] Seneca the Younger may have been the first to describe an epidemic as 'black death', (Latin: mors atra) but only in reference to the acute lethality and dark prognosis of disease. In urban centres, the greater the population before the outbreak, the longer the duration of the period of abnormal mortality. The Black Death was the second disaster affecting Europe during the Late Middle Ages (the first one being the Great Famine of 1315–1317)[17] and is estimated to have killed 30% to 60% of Europe's population.
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